内容简介:Tags:basicPolymorphism plays a vital role in automating verification in LH. However, thanks to its ubiquity, we often take it for granted, and it can be quite baffling to figure out why verification fails with monomorphic signatures. Let me explain why, us
Tags:basic
Polymorphism plays a vital role in automating verification in LH. However, thanks to its ubiquity, we often take it for granted, and it can be quite baffling to figure out why verification fails with monomorphic signatures. Let me explain why, using a simple example that has puzzled me and other users several times.
22: 23: module PolymorphicPerplexion where
A Type for Ordered Lists
Previously we have seen how you can use LH to define a type of lists whose values are in increasing (ok, non-decreasing!) order.
First, we define an IncList a
type, with Emp
(“empty”) and :<
(“cons”) constructors.
38: data IncList a = Emp 39: | (:<) { hd :: a, tl :: IncList a } 40: 41: infixr 9 :<
Next, we refine the type to specify that each “cons” :<
constructor takes as input a hd
and a tl
which must be an IncList a
of values v
each of which is greater than hd
.
50: {-@ data IncList a = Emp 51: | (:<) { hd :: a, tl :: IncList {v:a | hd <= v}} 52: @-}
We can confirm that the above definition ensures that the only legal values are increasingly ordered lists, as LH accepts the first list below, but rejects the second where the elements are out of order.
61: legalList :: IncList Int 62: (PolymorphicPerplexion.IncList GHC.Types.Int)legalList = GHC.Types.Int0 :< GHC.Types.Int1 :< GHC.Types.Int2 :< GHC.Types.Int3 :< {VV : forall a . (PolymorphicPerplexion.IncList a) | VV == Emp}Emp 63: 64: illegalList :: IncList Int 65: (PolymorphicPerplexion.IncList GHC.Types.Int)illegalList = GHC.Types.Int0 :< GHC.Types.Int1 :< GHC.Types.Int3 :< GHC.Types.Int2 :< {VV : forall a . (PolymorphicPerplexion.IncList a) | VV == Emp}Emp
A Polymorphic Insertion Sort
Next, lets write a simple insertion-sort
function that takes a plain unordered list of [a]
and returns the elements in increasing order:
76: insertSortP :: (Ord a) => [a] -> IncList a 77: forall a . (GHC.Classes.Ord<[]> a) => [a] -> (PolymorphicPerplexion.IncList a)insertSortP [a]xs = foldr a -> (PolymorphicPerplexion.IncList a) -> (PolymorphicPerplexion.IncList a)insertP {VV : forall a . (PolymorphicPerplexion.IncList a) | VV == Emp}Emp {v : [a] | len v >= 0 && v == xs}xs 78: 79: insertP :: (Ord a) => a -> IncList a -> IncList a 80: forall a . (GHC.Classes.Ord<[]> a) => a -> (PolymorphicPerplexion.IncList a) -> (PolymorphicPerplexion.IncList a)insertP ay Emp = {VV : a | VV == y}y :< {VV : forall a . (PolymorphicPerplexion.IncList a) | VV == Emp}Emp 81: insertP y (x :< xs) 82: | {VV : a | VV == y}y <= {VV : a | VV == x}x = {VV : a | VV == y}y :< {VV : a | VV == x}x :< {v : (PolymorphicPerplexion.IncList {VV : a | x <= VV}) | v == xs}xs 83: | otherwise = {VV : a | VV == x}x :< (PolymorphicPerplexion.IncList a)insertP {VV : a | VV == y}y {v : (PolymorphicPerplexion.IncList {VV : a | x <= VV}) | v == xs}xs
Happily, LH is able to verify the above code without any trouble! (If that seemed too easy, don’t worry: if you mess up the comparison, e.g. change the guard to x <= y
LH will complain about it.)
A Monomorphic Insertion Sort
However, lets take the exact
same code as above but
change the type signatures to make the functions monomorphic
, here, specialized to Int
lists.
99: insertSortM :: [Int] -> IncList Int 100: [GHC.Types.Int] -> (PolymorphicPerplexion.IncList GHC.Types.Int)insertSortM [GHC.Types.Int]xs = foldr GHC.Types.Int -> (PolymorphicPerplexion.IncList GHC.Types.Int) -> (PolymorphicPerplexion.IncList GHC.Types.Int)insertM {VV : forall a . (PolymorphicPerplexion.IncList a) | VV == Emp}Emp {v : [GHC.Types.Int] | len v >= 0 && v == xs}xs 101: 102: insertM :: Int -> IncList Int -> IncList Int 103: GHC.Types.Int -> (PolymorphicPerplexion.IncList GHC.Types.Int) -> (PolymorphicPerplexion.IncList GHC.Types.Int)insertM GHC.Types.Inty Emp = {v : GHC.Types.Int | v == y}y :< {VV : forall a . (PolymorphicPerplexion.IncList a) | VV == Emp}Emp 104: insertM y (x :< xs) 105: | {v : GHC.Types.Int | v == y}y <= {v : GHC.Types.Int | v == x}x = {v : GHC.Types.Int | v == y}y :< {v : GHC.Types.Int | v == x}x :< {v : (PolymorphicPerplexion.IncList {v : GHC.Types.Int | x <= v}) | v == xs}xs 106: | otherwise = {v : GHC.Types.Int | v == x}x :< (PolymorphicPerplexion.IncList GHC.Types.Int)insertM {v : GHC.Types.Int | v == y}y {v : (PolymorphicPerplexion.IncList {v : GHC.Types.Int | x <= v}) | v == xs}xs
Huh? Now LH appears to be unhappy with the code! How is this possible?
Lets look at the type error:
114: /Users/rjhala/PerplexingPolymorphicProperties.lhs:80:27-38: Error: Liquid Type Mismatch 115: 116: 80 | | otherwise = x :< insertM y xs 117: ^^^^^^^^^^^^ 118: Inferred type 119: VV : Int 120: 121: not a subtype of Required type 122: VV : {VV : Int | x <= VV} 123: 124: In Context 125: x : Int
LH expects
that since we’re using the “cons” operator :<
the “tail” value insertM y xs
must contain values VV
that are greater than the “head” x
. The error says that, LH cannot prove this requirement of actual
list insertM y xs
.
Hmm, well thats a puzzler. Two questions that should come to mind.
-
Why does the above fact hold in the first place?
-
How is LH able to deduce this fact with the polymorphic signature but not the monomorphic one?
Lets ponder the first question: why is
every element of insert y xs
in fact larger than x
? For three reasons:
-
every element in
xs
is larger thanx
, as the listx :< xs
was ordered, -
y
is larger thanx
as established by theotherwise
and crucially -
the elements returned by
insert y xs
are eithery
or fromxs
!
Now onto the second question: how does
LH verify the polymorphic code, but not the monomorphic one? The reason is the fact (c)! LH is a modular
verifier, meaning that the only
information that it has about the behavior of insert
at a call-site is the information captured in the (refinement) type specification
for insert
. The polymorphic
signature:
156: insertP :: (Ord a) => a -> IncList a -> IncList a
via parametricity
, implicitly states fact (c). That is, if at a call-site insertP y xs
we pass in a value that is greater an x
and a list of values greater than x
then via polymorphic instantiation
at the call-site, LH infers that the returned value must also be a list of elements greater than x
!
However, the monomorphic signature
167: insertM :: Int -> IncList Int -> IncList Int
offers no such insight. It simply says the function takes in an Int
and another ordered list of Int
and returns another ordered list, whose actual elements could be arbitrary Int
. Specifically, at the call-site insertP y xs
LH has no way to conclude the the returned elements are indeed greater than x
and hence rejects the monomorphic code.
Perplexity
While parametricity is all very nice, and LH’s polymorphic instanatiation is very clever and useful, it can also be quite mysterious. For example, q curious user Oisín pointed out
that while the code below is rejected
that if you uncomment
the type signature for go
then it is accepted
by LH!
187: insertSortP' :: (Ord a) => [a] -> IncList a 188: forall a . (GHC.Classes.Ord<[]> a) => [a] -> (PolymorphicPerplexion.IncList a)insertSortP' = (PolymorphicPerplexion.IncList a)foldr a -> (PolymorphicPerplexion.IncList a) -> (PolymorphicPerplexion.IncList a)go {VV : forall a . (PolymorphicPerplexion.IncList a) | VV == Emp}Emp 189: where 190: -- go :: (Ord a) => a -> IncList a -> IncList a 191: a -> (PolymorphicPerplexion.IncList a) -> (PolymorphicPerplexion.IncList a)go ay Emp = {VV : a | VV == y}y :< {VV : forall a . (PolymorphicPerplexion.IncList a) | VV == Emp}Emp 192: go y (x :< xs) 193: | {VV : a | VV == y}y <= {VV : a | VV == x}x = {VV : a | VV == y}y :< {VV : a | VV == x}x :< {v : (PolymorphicPerplexion.IncList {VV : a | x <= VV}) | v == xs}xs 194: | otherwise = {VV : a | VV == x}x :< (PolymorphicPerplexion.IncList a)go {VV : a | VV == y}y {v : (PolymorphicPerplexion.IncList {VV : a | x <= VV}) | v == xs}xs
This is thoroughly perplexing, but again, is explained by the absence of parametricity. When we remove
the type signature, GHC defaults to giving go
a monomorphic
signature where the a
is not universally quantified, and which roughly captures the same specification as the monomorphic insertM
above causing verification to fail!
Restoring the signature provides LH with the polymorphic specification, which can be instantiated at the call-site to recover the fact (c)
that is crucial for verification.
Moral
I hope that example illustrates two points.
First, parametric polymorphism lets type specifications say a lot more than they immediately let on: so do write polymorphic signatures whenever possible.
Second, on a less happy note, explaining why fancy type checkers fail remains a vexing problem, whose difficulty is compounded by increasing the cleverness of the type system.
We’d love to hear any ideas you might have to solve the explanation problem!
以上就是本文的全部内容,希望对大家的学习有所帮助,也希望大家多多支持 码农网
猜你喜欢:本站部分资源来源于网络,本站转载出于传递更多信息之目的,版权归原作者或者来源机构所有,如转载稿涉及版权问题,请联系我们。